Eisenhower, In War and Peace by Jean Edward Smith
Eisenhower, In War and Peace by Jean Edward Smith
A Book Report by Bobby Everett Smith
May 10, 2018
Spoiler Alert
Setting
White House, Washington, D.C. and around the world, 1915 to 1970
Characters
Harry S. Truman elected American vice president under FDR in 1944. 33rd President of the United States, took office as president upon the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1945. Succeeded by Eisenhower in 1952.
Franklin D. Roosevelt, Governor of New York, 32nd President of the United States–1933 through April 1945. Truman succeeded Roosevelt as President of the United States. Commander in Chief to Dwight D. Eisenhower during World War II and before.
Joseph Stalin, Soviet leader. Governed the USSR from the mid-1920s until his death in 1953, he served as General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1922 to 1952. Led the Soviet Union in World War II and participated as one of the world leaders for the Allies in World War II.
Sir Winston Churchill, British statesman, army officer, and writer, served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1940 to 1945 and again from 1951 to 1955.
General Douglas MacArthur, an American five-star general and Field Marshal of the Philippine Army. He was Chief of Staff of the United States Army during the 1930s and played a prominent role in the Pacific theater during World War II. He received the Medal of Honor and led the reconstruction of Japan after its surrender.
General Dwight D. Eisenhower, an American Army general who served as the 34th President of the United States from 1953 to 1961. During World War II, he was a five-star general in the United States Army and served as Supreme Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Forces in Europe. Succeeded by John F. Kennedy as president in 1961.
Mamie Doud Eisenhower, Ike’s wife from Denver, Colorado. Married to Dwight D. Eisenhower, President.
General George Patton, a senior officer of the United States Army who commanded the U.S. Seventh Army in the Mediterranean and European theaters of World War II. Best known for his leadership of the U.S. Third Army. Reported to Eisenhower during European operations of World War II.
General George C. Marshall, Chief of Staff of the United States Army, under presidents Franklin D. Roosevelt and Harry S. Truman and served as Secretary of State and Secretary of Defense under Truman. Eisenhower reported to him during World War II.
Tom Dewey, candidate for President in 1948 against Truman; lost election in a surprise upset. Supported Eisenhower for Democratic candidate for president in 1952.
Joseph McCarthy, U.S. Senator from Wisconsin; known for alleging that numerous Communists had infiltrated the United States federal government, universities, film industry, and elsewhere. Not a favorite of Eisenhower.
General Matthew Ridgway, 19th Chief of Staff of the United States Army. He served in World War II, as Commanding General of the 82nd Airborne Division, turned around the Korean war, when MacArthur was fired in April 1951 for insubordination, Ridgway took command of all U.N. forces in the Far East.
Adlai E. Stevenson, politician, noted for his intellectual demeanor, eloquent public speaking, and promotion of progressive causes in the Democratic Party. Ran for President of the United States against Eisenhower in 1952.
John Foster Dulles, Secretary of State under Eisenhower. He concentrated on Cold War alliances such as NATO, was architect of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization and helped instigate the 1953 Iranian coup d’état and the 1954 Guatemalan coup d’état.
Lucius D. Clay. U S. Army in World War II. In 1945 served as deputy to General Dwight D. Eisenhower. The following year, he was made Deputy Governor of Germany during the Allied Occupation. Supported Ike’s political bid for the presidency in 1952 and 1956.
David Eisenhower, father of Dwight D. Eisenhower. Married to Ida.
Ida Eisenhower, mother of Dwight D. Eisenhower, prime motivator in Ike’s early life.
Milton Eisenhower, brother to Dwight D. Eisenhower. President of Johns Hopkins University, advisor to president.
Arthur Eisenhower, brother to Dwight D. Eisenhower
Earl Eisenhower, brother to Dwight D. Eisenhower
Roy Eisenhower, brother to Dwight D. Eisenhower
Gregory Zhukov, Soviet Army officer, who became Chief of General Staff, Deputy Commander-in-Chief, Minister of Defense, and a member of the Politburo. took the German Instrument of Surrender in 1945.
Harry Hopkins 8th Secretary of Commerce, and one of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt’s closest advisors. He was one of the architects of the New Deal, especially the relief programs of the WPA, which he directed and built into the largest employer in the country.
Mark Clark, Army officer who saw service during World War I, World War II, and the Korean War. He was the youngest four-star general in the United States Army during World War II.
Kay Summersby, a member of the British Mechanized Transport Corps during World War II, who served as a driver and later as personal secretary to Dwight D. Eisenhower during his period as Supreme Commander Allied Expeditionary Force in command of the Allied forces in Europe. They were together a great deal until the war ended, when Eisenhower cut ties and returned to the United States
Bedell Smith, officer of the United States Army who served as General Dwight D. Eisenhower’s chief of staff at Allied Forces Headquarters during the Tunisia Campaign and the Allied invasion of Italy in 1943. He was Eisenhower’s chief of staff) in the campaign in Western Europe from 1944 through 1945.
Omar Bradley, officer of the United States Army during and after World War II. Bradley was the first Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff and oversaw the U.S. military’s policy-making in the Korean War.
John Lee, Army engineer, lieutenant general. Commanded the Communications Zone in the European Theater of Operations during World War II.
Executive Summary
Born in Texas but raised in Kansas, Dwight D. Eisenhower was a well-recognized and promoted military officer in World War II who later became the 34th president of the United States for two terms, from 1953 to 1961. Ike, as he was known to most of his friends, graduated from West Point in 1915 and began his lifetime career as an officer in the United States Army.
Ike married Mamie Doud from Denver, Colorado in 1916. Mamie was not well-educated, but she was from an affluent family, charming and good-looking. She had some set-backs but became a good Army wife, supporting him throughout his army and presidential career. They had two sons. Little Ikey, died at a young age and second son, John, grew up to be a West Point graduate supporting his father throughout his life.
Ike gained early recognition in the Army for his organizational skills and his ability to articulate solutions for complex ideas. He reported to General Douglas MacArthur who took a liking to him and transferred with him to the Philippines where he was Chief of Staff. Ike learned a lot about the Philippines during his tour there.
On December 7, 1941, Ike and Mamie were just getting settled into their new post in San Antonio, Texas, when the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor and World War II started in the Pacific, quickly followed by a declaration of war in Europe.
Ike was called to Washington where he was assigned to lead the development of the plan to conduct World War II. Ike reported to George C. Marshall in Washington, Chief of Staff of the Army, and he soon became known to Franklin D. Roosevelt, the president of the United States. Mentally honest and with great moral courage, Ike was up to any task the government gave him,
Marshall became convinced that Eisenhower was ready to take over the War Plans Division (G3). The Army was reorganized under three forces: Air, Ground, and Supply. Ike was promoted to Major General and he became not only Chief of the War Planning group but Marshall’s deputy for the disposition of all army forces on a global scale.
In his new job, it was Ike’s responsibility to translate FDR’s strategy into a war plan against Hitler. Ike’s initial plan called for a cross-channel invasion of France from England.
Eisenhower was not happy with progress with U.S. forces in England. General Marshall assigned him and General Mark Clark to go to London to evaluate the situation. Clark and Eisenhower arrived there on May 26, 1942. Kay Summersby, a British driver, met them and she developed a relationship with Eisenhower throughout his term in Europe. When the war ended, they parted, and Ike returned to Washington and Mamie.
On his trip report, Ike indicated that the current leadership in Europe was lacking. Marshall told Eisenhower to draft a memo outlining the duties of a Supreme Allied Commander in Europe–A plan to prepare for and carry out military operations in the European Theater. On June 11, 1942, after getting FDR’s approval, Ike was named the Supreme Commander.
Ike and his staff planned and executed D-Day, the largest amphibious landing the world had ever seen. D-Day was scheduled for June 5, but weather moved in preventing the kind of air support that Ike required. He pushed the invasion back by 24 hours. Ike’s weather man predicted that the climate would turn favorable late on the fifth of June and last through the next day. Ike made the decision to “Go”.
Shortly after midnight on June 6, 1944, American paratroopers began landing on the flanks of the Allied invasion in Normandy, France. At 3 a.m. British and American bombers began their raids on the coastal defense. Over 13,000 sorties were launched. Next, Admiral Ramsay’s fleets opened with an offshore bombardment. A total of 6,483 ships steamed towards the beaches. At 0630 the American First Army under General Omar Bradley came ashore at Utah and Omaha beaches. An hour later, the British Second Army invaded Gold, Juno, and Sword beaches. A total of 132,000 troops came ashore that day.
The fighting in Normandy lasted 75 days. Germany lost 500,000 men killed, wounded, or captured and the Allies had lost 200,000. Allies quickly replaced their losses, Germans could not replace their losses.
Ike and his Allied forces continued into Germany somewhat in competition with Soviet Forces for the control of Berlin. Roosevelt died on April 12, 1945; Hitler committed suicide on April 30 and the Germans surrendered on May 7, 1945.
Ike returned to Washington after the War and held positions as Chief of Staff of the Army, President of Columbia University, and Supreme Commander of NATO. In 1952 he ran for President of the United States as a Republican and defeated Democrat Adlai Stevenson.
Eisenhower served two terms as President. The American people took Eisenhower for what they wanted an American to be–fresh, strong, decent, and generous. He was likeable, had a marvelous smile, and spoke off-the-cuff with conviction, passion, and persuasion. He was a great example of American values and family virtues. The American people loved this war hero, the first since Ulysses S. Grant.
Eisenhower’s greatest achievement as President was the passage of legislation which authorized the Interstate Highway System. The highway system was the largest public works project ever attempted. Ike sold the country and Congress on the need for the vast system based on the need to move industrial products across the nation in the event of war with the Communists.
Ike proposed that the highway system be funded by a gasoline tax. The tax was initially 4 cents per gallon of gasoline, but it is now 18.4 cents per gallon. Today the highway system covers 46,876 miles and contains 55,512 bridges and 14,756 interchanges.
All the highways and bridges need repair as of writing this report in 2018.
In America, in the Deep South, “separate but equal” had been the policy which allowed for segregation of black citizens in schools, restaurants, and churches. Blacks in the South were required to ride in “the back of the bus.”
In 1954, the Supreme Court, in a decision written by Chief Justice Earl Warren, declared that racial segregation was a denial of “equal protection under the law.” The now-famous case of Brown vs. The Board of Education expressed for the first time that a new series of racial equality laws was now the law of the land. The Eisenhower administration expressed their belief that school segregation was unconstitutional.
In Little Rock, Arkansas, 1957, the school segregation issue came to a head. When nine black students persisted in their determination to integrate the Little Rock High School, Governor Faubus called out the national guard, citing his fear of violence as the reason. The Guard was there to prevent harm to citizens, the Governor said.
The president disagreed and ordered General Maxwell Taylor to lead the 101st Airborne and to use force in Little Rock if necessary. Ike offered no conditions. “the black students will be admitted to Central High using whatever force may be necessary.”
Eisenhower spoke to the nation and appealed to the “decent” people of Arkansas to support the rule of law. Using his 101st Airborne forces allowed the nine students to enter the school and desegregation of American schools to continue. “Thus, will be restored the image of America and all its parts as one nation, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all.”
John F. Kennedy defeated Richard Nixon for the presidency in the 1960 election by a small margin. Kennedy carried 303 electoral votes to Nixon’s 219 votes but with only a 112,000-vote margin in the popular vote.
In a farewell address in January 1961, Eisenhower warned the nation about the dangers of the military industrial complex. “The dangers of a disastrous rise of misplaced power exists.” The U.S. must avoid becoming a nation of fear and hate and instead be a nation of mutual trust and respect.
The Eisenhowers retired to their farm at Gettysburg. Ike was restored to permanent five-star rank. He concentrated on writing his memoirs. On March 27, 1969, Ike instructed his son to remove him from life-support devices.
Ike was still considered one of the most admired men in America.
The Story
Dwight Eisenhower was born in Dennison, Texas in 1890 to his parents Ida and David Eisenhower. Known as Ike throughout his life, Eisenhower grew up in a poor family with five brothers. One brother, Paul, died in infancy. With a charming smile and a commanding presence throughout his life, Ike became Supreme Commander of Allied forces in Europe during World War II and later was elected twice to be President of the United States.
Ike’s father worked hard but paid little attention to the family. His mother raised and motivated the boys and managed their household garden which provided much of the food required by the family.
After Ike graduated from high school, he discussed his future with a lifetime friend, Everett Hazlett who was applying for West Point. “It’s the best way to get out of Abilene,” Everett told Ike.
With that information, Ike took tests and applied to his senator successfully for an appointment to West Point. In June 1911 Ike began his education at West Point, joining the Class of 1915. Ida cried when Ike left for the Academy. She was a pacifist, did not believe in war, and she did not want to lose her son.
Ike’s Early Army Days
In 1911 West Point was not known for its educational mastery. In fact, some people considered it to be 40 years behind the times. Cadets prospered in grades by rote memorization of their study materials. Eisenhower reported for duty in June 1911 along with 263 other first year cadets.
Ike pursued his studies with mediocrity. He took up cigarettes and poker, both of which were against the rules. He went out for baseball and football where he became a coach in football and later the head cheerleader for the football team. He graduated in 1915 and was ordered to San Antonio, Texas and the 19th Infantry Battalion.
In October 1915, Ike met and immediately fell in love with Mary Geneva Doud, age 19 and better known as Mamie.
Mamie was from an affluent family in Denver, Colorado. She received a sketchy education and dropped out of formal schooling in the eighth grade. Eisenhower was swept off his feet by Mamie and the entire Doud family. They were married on July 1, 1916. Her father liked Ike but had misgivings about her life with an Army officer. A wife is an important person in the life of an ambitious young officer, and Mamie did her share throughout Ike’s career.
World War I broke out for the United States in April 1917 and in September that year, Mamie gave birth to the Eisenhower’s first baby, a son named Doud Dwight Eisenhower, Little Ikey.
Ike was transferred to Camp Colt near Gettysburg where he was given command of a new tank corps being formed there. Ike wanted to go to war in France, but he was destined to organize and command the new tank training facility as Captain, United States Army. Within three months, 10,000 men and 600 officers were under Eisenhower’s command at Camp Colt. Ike was identified by his superiors as one of the best officers in the Army for his organizational ability and loyalty from his officers. He was promoted to the temporary rank of Major on June 17, 1918 and on October 14, 1918, his 28th birthday, he received a promotion to Lieutenant Colonel. His commanding officer wrote in his Fitness Report that he was strong in initiative, attention to duty, and capacity for command. Ike was recommended for the Distinguished Service Medal for his performance in organizing the 301st Tank Command.
Two weeks after his promotion to Lcol., Ike received orders to France where he was to command an armored regiment that would lead allied forces through a breakthrough on the Western Front in France.
Much to Ike’s disappointment, the war ended before he left the United States and Ike ended World War I with no combat experience. Even so, Ike received his Distinguished Service Medal for his “unusual zeal, foresight and administrative ability” in his organization, training, and preparation for service of the tank corps.
In December 1918, after the armistice had been signed, Ike arrived at Ft. Dix with 6,000 men and three tanks. The Army announced plans to send a convoy of trucks across the United States to evaluate roads and determine tracks for future infrastructure. Ike was assigned to the Convoy and his performance in the cross-country trip of 3251 miles left a vivid memory on him which later translated to the Interstate Highway System which Ike initiated when he was President of the United States.
Little Ikey died at age 4 in 1921 from Scarlet Fever. It was a traumatic blow to Ike and Mamie.
Next, Ike was assigned to Panama where his commanding officer, General Fox Conner, took a liking to Ike and became his life-long mentor. Under Conner’s tutelage, Ike became a fan of military history, a time that Ike later thought of as graduate school in military affairs. Mamie did not like it in Panama and she went back home to Denver for the birth of their new baby.
In August 1925, Eisenhower was ordered to the Command and General Staff School, Ft. Leavenworth. There he learned the attributes of a commanding general: focus, common sense, simplicity, and attitude.
After a two-year tour in Paris, Ike was sent to Washington to work as assistant to General Douglas MacArthur, who was at that time, Chief of Staff of the United States Army. MacArthur gave Ike responsibility for the development of the M-Day plan, a mobilization plan for the U.S. Army.
That turned out to be good fortune for Eisenhower who became a favorite of MacArthur’s who recognized him for his exceptional mind and sound conclusions. Mentally honest and with great moral courage, he is up to any task the government can give him, MacArthur said.
Ike followed MacArthur to the Philippines in 1935 as the General’s Chief of Staff. MacArthur delegated every day operations to Eisenhower and Major James B. Ord, Operations Officer. MacArthur not only was commanding officer of the U.S. Army in the Philippines, he was titular commander of the Philippine Army.
Life in the Philippines was pretty good although the weather was hot and sometimes rainy in the monsoon season. Ike played golf, bridge, poker and learned to fly. The Philippine tour lasted until 1937 when MacArthur retired from the United States Army but remained in Manila as Field Marshall of the Army of the Philippines. Eisenhower remained as Chief of Staff and became the senior U.S. officer in the Philippines. In his final fitness report, MacArthur wrote that Eisenhower was indispensable, superior in all categories and in time of war Eisenhower should be promoted to general rank immediately.
On May 27, 1939, Ike received orders transferring him to 15th Infantry at Ft. Lewis, assuring Ike of battalion command.
World War II
When the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, the United States was ill prepared for a war in the Pacific let alone another war with Hitler and his axis powers in Europe.
General George C. Marshall was Chief of Staff of the Army headquartered in Washington, D.C. He needed talented help and fast. He began immediately to consider who could be the chief of the War Plans Division and Dwight Eisenhower came up at the top of the list. Ike was in San Antonio when he got the call to report immediately to D.C.
When he arrived at General Marshall’s office, he was escorted into the general’s office. “What should be our general line of action in the Philippines,” the general asked Eisenhower.
“Give me a few hours,” Ike replied.
Eisenhower spent three hours preparing an answer for the Chief of Staff. He knew he was being evaluated; his answer had to be concise, prompt, and unimpeachable. But Ike was the best person in the country to provide such an answer and he had just spent four years in the Philippines under Douglas MacArthur; he was a leader, a taskmaster, he had no tolerance for failure, he knew how to delegate, and he was a team player. He took responsibility and was the most well-informed person about the Philippines that Marshall could find.
Eisenhower replied to General Marshall that they could not hold the Philippines, not now. They had to retreat to Australia and set up a base of operations from where they could build a viable force against Japan. They must start immediately and spare no expense. There was no tolerance for failure.
Marshall liked his answer and assigned Eisenhower to the job of Deputy to General Marshall responsible for the military effort in the Philippines. “Do your job, solve your problems and tell me what you have done,” Marshall instructed Eisenhower on the Sunday afternoon of December 14, 1941.
Mamie moved to Washington from San Antonio after only six months in one of her favorite duty stations. Ike was now permanently stationed in Washington, D.C. or at least for the duration of the War.
Ike excelled at his new job. He had the confidence to make decisions and carry then out without requesting support or approval from his boss. He worked from 7:45 to 11:45 p.m. every day, 16 hours for seven days a week.
In late December 1941, Winston Churchill came to Washington to meet with the president and the American chiefs of staff. Named Arcadia, this meeting turned out to be one of the most important meetings of the war in determining Allied strategy. Roosevelt and Churchill created the Combined Chiefs of Staff, agreed on the invasion of North Africa, and agreed that the Allies would defeat Hitler in Europe before concentrating efforts against Japan in the Pacific.
Marshall suggested that the war be fought in theaters around the world with one Supreme Commander in each theater commanding all forces, air, ground, and ships as well as the allocation of all supplies within the theater.
Marshall ordered Ike to draft a message to the new Supreme Commander in the Pacific. Ike went to work on Christmas day and the next morning presented his draft to Marshall, a five-page paper specifying the mission, the authority of each Supreme Commander, and safeguards for each nation.
Marshall liked the plan and presented it to the President that afternoon. Roosevelt later presented it to Churchill. The draft established the concept of “unity of command” which became the model for such instructions delivered to all Supreme Commanders throughout the war.
Marshall was convinced after this draft that Eisenhower was ready to take over the War Plans Division (G3). The Army was reorganized under three forces, Air, Ground, and Supply. Ike was promoted to Major General and he became not only Chief of the War Planning group but Marshall’s deputy for the disposition of all army forces on a global scale.
In his new job, it was Ike’s responsibility to translate FDR’s strategy into a war plan against Hitler. Ike’s initial plan called for a cross-channel invasion of France from England. In the first draft of the plan, Ike provided for air superiority, controlling the U-boat challenge, defending coastal armaments, and provision of enough landing craft to accommodate the landing troops.
Ike’s plan was presented to Marshall on February 28, 1942. The president approved it after lengthy questioning and D-Day was set for April 1, 1943. Marshall and Hopkins flew to London to brief Churchill on the plan.
Eisenhower was not happy with progress being made with U.S. forces in England. General Marshall assigned him and General Mark Clark to go to London to evaluate the situation. Clark and Eisenhower arrived there on May 26, 1942. They were met by Kay Summersby, who became Ike’s driver and confidant.
Ike and Clark began a tour of U.S. and British forces which included an inspection of a major field exercise in Kent and Sussex. British General Bernard L. Montgomery, British Army Commander in Southwest England. Montgomery was not happy at having to spend some time with the Americans and he let them know about his unhappiness. Ike left his introduction to Montgomery fuming mad.
Ike and Clark along with Hap Arnold, Army Air Force, met at the end of the tour to compare notes. All agreed that the existing commander of U.S. forces in England had to be replaced. The question was, “who is the best man is to replace General Chaney?” They needed someone who was familiar with the War Plans as well as someone who had Marshall’s confidence and could get to London quickly.
Arnold and Clark agreed privately that the new leader in London should be Ike and that Clark would present the recommendation to Marshall as soon as possible.
Marshall told Eisenhower to draft a memo outlining the duties of a Supreme Allied Commander in Europe. A plan to prepare for and carry out military operations in the European Theater. On June 11, 1942, after getting FDR’s approval, Ike was named the Supreme Commander in Europe reporting to George C. Marshall, who would remain headquartered in Washington, D.C. Ike, promoted to a three-star General (Lt. General). Ike departed for Europe on June 23 leaving Mamie behind in Washington.
In his new capacity, Eisenhower met with Winston Churchill several times a week. Ike learned right away that Churchill did not favor a cross-channel invasion of France, especially not in 1942. Kay Summersby, on Ike’s request, became his full-time driver throughout the war.
Roosevelt and Churchill eventually decided that an invasion of North Africa would be the best strategy in 1942. The French Vichy government was still in control of Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia which were not occupied by German forces. The Allied leaders recognized that success of the North African operation depended on the reaction of the French forces in those countries.
TORCH, as the North African operation was named, simply put was an invasion of a neutral nation without a declaration of war. The United States recognized the Vichy government as the legitimate government of France, but Britain did not. Churchill recognized the Free French government under General Charles de Gaulle.
Eisenhower managed Allied forces from Gibraltar. The Vichy French soon realized it was not in their interest to oppose the Allies and they settled for an armistice on November 8, 1942.
Fighting in North Africa did not go well for the Allies at first. Americans were green, soft, and used too high a standard of living. They were not well trained and did not fight well against the German forces who were just the opposite. But Germany’s strength was no match for America’s industrial machine. By the end of March 1943, the Allies were flying 1000 sorties per day to the German’s 60 flights per day. In April, the Allies put 1,400 tanks in the field and the Germans only managed to land 80. The Germans surrendered in Tunis in May. The battle is fought and won by the quartermaster before the shooting begins.
Eisenhower studied his mistakes. He recognized the importance of training and discipline. He studied how to deploy airpower and massed armor. He did not recognize the need for a proper replacement system. It was in North Africa that Eisenhower made the transition from staff officer to senior commander. Ike realized that he did not have to keep Washington informed of every move and he certainly did not need approval of every decision before he executed it.
In May 1943, the final plan for invasion of Sicily was approved. General Patton would lead American forces and General Montgomery would lead British forces. D-Day for the invasion of Sicily was set for July 10, 1943.
Ike used his powers of delegation to fight the battles of Sicily and Italy while he continued planning of Operation OVERLORD. At Casablanca, in 1943, when Churchill and Roosevelt and their military staffs met, Roosevelt confirmed that Ike would be the Supreme Allied Commander for the invasion of Europe. May 1944 held fast as the date.
D-Day
Ike’s biggest problem was a shortage of landing craft. When he appealed to Washington for more, he was rebuffed by Admiral King, who wanted two-thirds of all craft produced to go to the Pacific. D-Day was pushed back to early June 1944.
D-Day was scheduled for June 5 but weather prevented the kind of air support that Ike required. He pushed the invasion back 24 hours. Ike’s weather man predicted that the weather would turn favorable late on the fifth of June and last through the next day. Ike made the decision to “Go”.
Shortly after midnight on June 6, 1944, American paratroopers began landing on the flanks of the Allied invasion in Normandy, France. At 3 a.m. British and American bombers began their raids on the coastal defense. Over 13,000 sorties were launched. Next, Admiral Ramsay’s fleets opened with an offshore bombardment. A total of 6,483 ships steamed towards the beaches. At 0630 the American First Army under General Omar Bradley came ashore at Utah and Omaha beaches. An hour later, the British Second Army invaded Gold, Juno, and Sword beaches. A total of 132,000 troops came ashore that day.
All the beach landings went according to plan but later in the day the Americans on Omaha were holding by a thread.
The Germans were caught by surprise. They thought that the weather would delay any effort to execute the invasion but more importantly they expected the troops to come ashore in the Calais area and in fact the Allies had made a pro-active effort to convince the enemy that the landings would take place there.
The fighting in Normandy lasted 75 days. Germany lost 500,000 men killed, wounded, or captured and the Allies had lost 200,000. Allies quickly replaced their losses, Germans could not replace their losses.
On August 24, 1944 the Allied forces entered Paris. De Gaulle took up residence at the Palais de l’Elysee. De Gaulle led a victory parade down the Champs -Elysees.
On December 16, 1944 FDR promoted Eisenhower to five-star, General of the Army. On December 16, Germany launched a counter-attack which became known as the Battle of the Bulge which caught the Americans napping.
Ike and his Allied forces continued into Germany somewhat in competition with Soviet Forces for the control of Berlin.
Roosevelt died on April 12, 1945; Hitler committed suicide on April 30 and the Germans surrendered on May 7, 1945.
When the war ended, Ike was wildly popular in the United States, but things were not totally settled in Europe. In fact, World War II ending only what brought on what became known as the Cold War. The U.S. leaders thought that the Soviet Union was taking up where Hitler left off-the quest for world domination. Splitting up Germany and then in more detail East and West Berlin, Poland, the rest of Eastern Europe—came into play.
The Yalta Agreement held near the end of World War II set up the boundaries of Germany amongst four Allies—U.S., Soviet Union, Great Britain, and France, known as the Allied Control Council. Ike had a hard time getting this new government body together. The main issue was he withdrawal of Allied forces from Europe. The British opposed any withdrawal of Allied forces from the Soviet zone.
The Potsdam Conference was scheduled for July 15, 1945 but the Russians demanded that the withdrawal of Allied forces from their zone take place before the conference. Eisenhower agreed with that objective and he informed his leaders of his opinion. Stalin, Truman, and Churchill prepared to meet in Potsdam, near Berlin, in mid-July. Truman ordered that SHAEF be dissolved immediately and that American troops in the Russian zone should begin withdrawal on June 21.
Ike returned to Washington to become the Chief of Staff of the Army. He preached the theme that the world must live in peace, an absolute necessity in this world. “We should be ready to defend our rights,” Ike spoke, “but we should be considerate and recognize the rights of others.”
In November 1945, Eisenhower returned to Washington permanently. He was immediately tagged as a presidential candidate but neither the Republican or Democratic Party knew where he voted.
In 1947, the Board of Trustees of Columbia University in New York City, made Eisenhower an official offer to be its President. Eisenhower accepted approaching his new civilian job with the attitude that the university’s objective should be to provide education on democracy with emphasis on the American system of democracy.
In 1948 Eisenhower was planning to start as president of Columbia but he had a few months in which he intended to write his memoirs, much like General Grant had done after the Civil War. Ike worked 16×7 on his memoirs which he called A Crusade in Europe. The manuscript was finished in mid-April 1948 and Ike received $625,000 for its publication.
Once installed as president of Columbia, Ike paid attention to his goals of teaching the responsibilities of citizenship. None of the faculty at Columbia agreed with him on that objective. The faculty believed it was their job to develop people intellectually.
In 1950, Tom Dewey, Governor of New York, suggested that Ike be the Republican nominee for President in the 1952 election.
President Dwight D. Eisenhower
On April 2, 1951, Eisenhower assumed the duty of Supreme Allied Commander in Europe stationed at NATO headquarters in Versailles. In addition to his NATO duties, Ike kept a close eye on the GOP presidential campaign. General Lucius D. Clay was urging Eisenhower to announce his candidacy for President in the 1952 campaign. Ike had mixed emotions about seeking the Presidency.
Eisenhower was concerned about being accused of being unfaithful in his marriage considering his relationship with Kay Summersby in World War II. Plus, he worried a little that people would accuse Mamie of being an alcoholic.
It was not clear whether Ike was Democrat or Republican. Harry Truman had suggested that he run for the presidency as a Democrat. When Ike did announce that he would consider running for the office, he would run as a progressive Republican, he said.
In February 1952, Ike and Clay met in an English cottage away from NATO headquarters. Ike agreed to run. He would come back to the United States, resign his commission in the Army and announce his candidacy. They set a tentative date for this announcement: June 1, 1952.
Eisenhower announced his candidacy to run as a Republican on June 4, 1952. Democrats were already running ads that accused him of infidelity and Mamie of being an alcoholic. They called Ike a Jew as well.
Ike won the nomination on the first ballot. He was now the Republican candidate for President of the United States in the 1952 election.
At the Republican convention, Ike was 61 years old and he needed a younger Republican as his running mate. Somewhat reluctantly, he chose Richard Nixon, a Senator from California.
The American people took Eisenhower for what they wanted an American to be. He was fresh, strong, decent, and generous. He was likeable, had a marvelous smile, and spoke off-the-cuff with conviction, passion, and persuasion. He was a great example of American values and family virtues. The American people loved this War hero, the first since Ulysses S. Grant.
The Democrats nominated Adlai Stevenson as their candidate for president. Stevenson was an accomplished orator, but Republican professionals thought that would make him even easier to beat.
Eisenhower carried all but nine of 48 states and 33 million votes to 27 million for Stevenson. Democrats carried the deep South, but Republicans were beginning to show a dent in that normally loyal Democratic bastion. The House and Senate also went to a Republican majority.
Dwight D. Eisenhower was the only president of the 20th century to preside over eight years of peace and prosperity. However, the war in Korea was still not settled and on November 29, 1952, before taking office, Ike headed to Korea to see for himself what the situation was.
Ike saw his options as 1) continue fighting indefinitely with the current or similar forces or 2) to add forces and weapons and aggressively go against North Korea, China and possibly Russia for a cessation of the war. Ike dismissed both options. Eisenhower saw his mandate from the people: stop the fighting.
On leaving Korea, Eisenhower determined that he would not stand forever on a static front where he continued to accept casualties without any visible results. It was time to negotiate a settlement.
On his return trip from Korea, Ike boarded the cruiser, USS Helena at Guam along with several of his newly appointed cabinet members. They set the course for American policy for the next four years—negotiate a settlement in Korea, contain the Communists worldwide, support our European allies, and bring the budget into a surplus. He decided to cut military headcount and enhance our nuclear capabilities. Tax cuts would be deferred until the budget was balanced. New Deal programs such as Social Security would be continued. Agricultural price supports would also continue. There would be no reduction in foreign aid. Eisenhower wanted to see the resources of the world used for bread, clothes, homes, hospitals, and schools, but not for guns.
Eisenhower emphasized these principles in a speech he called “The Chance for Peace,” sometimes called the most important speech that Eisenhower ever made. The speech firmly established America’s leadership in the world, a concept that closely followed Eisenhower’s personal leadership qualifications.
Ike abhorred war and by July 27, 1953, he brought the Korean war to a close. American casualties included 142,000 killed, wounded, or captured, 33,000 killed and 103,000 wounded, 5,178 missing.
One of Eisenhower’s most important appointments was that of Earl Warren to become Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. Warren, from California, was appointed to his new position on September 30, 1953, a post he held until 1969. Ultimately Eisenhower would appoint five justices to the Supreme Court, John Harlan, William Brennan, Charles Whittaker, Potter Stewart, and Earl Warren, The Court during and after Eisenhower’s term in office made land mark decisions in citizenship law, civil liberties, and civil rights.
Hostilities in Vietnam raised its ugly head in 1954. Eisenhower laid down the law: there would be no intervention in Vietnam, in spite of angry recommendations by John Foster Dulles, Secretary of State. Vietnam needs American leadership and the French deserve our help, Dulles argued. Eisenhower rejected this advice from the National Security Council and his Secretary of State.
Eisenhower believed that the best way to fight a war was to prevent it and he adopted the strategy of “massive retaliation”. He would use our nuclear superiority to ward off threats from the Communists and other foreign ideologies. “You use nukes against us, and we will use nukes against you, and more of them.”
Eisenhower was reelected as president in 1956 and Democrats captured both the House and the Senate with Sam Rayburn and Lyndon B. Johnson as majority leaders in each body, respectively. Ike got along good with both politicians and they met frequently in the White House usually in the evening over drinks to discuss legislation and policy.
The Interstate Highway System
Two of the most significant projects that transpired during this period were the Interstate Highway system and the St. Lawrence Seaway program. The highway system was the largest public works project ever attempted. Ike sold the country and Congress on the need for the vast system based on the need to move industrial products across the nation in the event of war with the Communists.
Ike proposed that the highway system be funded by a gasoline tax. Today the highway system covers 46,876 miles and contains 55,512 bridges and 14,756 interchanges. They are all in need of repair as of writing this report in 2018.
Today the gasoline tax is 18.4 cents per gallon. Total revenue from the tax exceeds $40 billion annually but it’s still not enough to meet the needs of upkeep of the transportation system. The original legislation for the tax was passed in 1994 but the law did not provide an index for inflation which accounts partially for the current shortage.
The Saint Lawrence Seaway is a system of locks, canals, and channels in Canada and the United States that permit oceangoing vessels to travel from the Atlantic Ocean to the Great Lakes of North America, as far inland as the western end of Lake Superior. The seaway is 2275 miles long and accommodates 2,000 ships annually. The average trip per ship is eight to ten days.
Less well known is Eisenhower’s contribution to public welfare. Social Security changes effected 10 million more recipients under legislation passed during Eisenhower’s term as President. The minimum wage was increased from $.75 to $1.00 and funds for research on the Salk Vaccine for polio prevention were also approved. Ike approved the formation of the Department of Health, Education and Welfare. The country achieved a balanced budget for the first time in many years.
On May 8, 1955 leaders of U.S., Britain, and France sent identical notes to Moscow requesting a Big 4 Conference. The Soviets agreed, and the meeting was set for Geneva on July 18. The Senate required that Eisenhower get their approval for any decisions made and that there would be no appeasement. Eisenhower agreed. The purpose of the meeting was to discuss disagreements amongst the four countries and to prevent future wars. It was an unprecedented type of meeting.
The Summit lasted five days with little progress made but the atmosphere of cooperation was accepted by all the leaders who agreed to disagree without threatening war. “Neither side wants war,” they said.
Eisenhower stole the spotlight at the convention with his “Open Skies” to throw open the skies of both the Soviet Union and the United States for a program of mutual inspection. The proposal was a complete surprise to the Soviets, but Eisenhower was not speaking from the hip. The proposal had been carefully reviewed and approved by the NSC and other leaders before the summit meeting. Ike proposed that each country give the other a blueprint of all military establishments and open the skies of each country to aerial photography by the other. “Practical progress towards a lasting peace is the objective,” Eisenhower continued.
The Soviets were uninterested in the proposal, but the rest of the world was intrigued. Khrushchev, President of the Soviet Union, described the proposal as a ploy to allow the United States to obtain espionage from the Soviet Union. Outside Russia, Eisenhower was the hero of the hour. Ike had delivered a sense of decency and dignity which mocked the picture of an immature nation hell-bent for war.
Eisenhower returned from the summit with an approval rating of 79%, a record for any president of the United States. Eisenhower continued to work to keep the spirit of Geneva alive. The Summit seemed to introduce a more relaxed tone to the Cold War. But not everyone in the U.S. was pleased. J. Edgar Hoover, Director of the FBI reported to Congress that the spirit of Geneva was encouraging Communists in America to come out of the woodwork to make inroads against naïve fellow citizens.
With his renewed popularity and approval ratings, Eisenhower announced his candidacy for reelection in the 1956 elections. Nixon agreed to stay on the ticket for a second term as Vice President.
Eisenhower swamped Stevenson with 35 million to 26 million votes which in the Electoral College translated to 41 states for Eisenhower to 7 for Stevenson.
Little Rock High School Integration, 1954
In America, the Deep South, “separate but equal” had been the policy which allowed for segregation of black citizens in schools, restaurants, and churches. Blacks in the South were required to ride in “the back of the bus.”
In 1954, the Supreme Court, in a decision written by Chief Justice Earl Warren, declared that racial segregation was a denial of “equal protection under the law.” The now-famous case of Brown vs. The Board of Education expressed for the first time that a new series of racial equality laws was now the law of the land. The Eisenhower administration expressed their belief that school segregation was unconstitutional.
Eisenhower followed on Truman’s initiative to desegregate the armed forces of the United States. Ike ordered the Defense Department to execute this new policy of integration within the armed forces. Schools and hospitals on military bases were also integrated.
Eisenhower ordered that the schools in the District of Columbia be desegregated as well. “The DC School System should be a model for the rest of the country,” Ike said. At the district court level, Frank Johnson, in Alabama, declared that Rosa Park was right. She had the constitutional right to sit in any seat on Montgomery buses that she chose. This decision prompted a city-wide boycott on all buses in the city.
In Little Rock, Arkansas, 1957, the school segregation issue came to a head. When nine black students persisted in their determination to integrate the Little Rock High School, Governor Faubus called out the national guard, citing his fear of violence. The Guard was there to prevent harm to citizens.
Central High in September 1957 on the first day of school, was ringed by 250 National Guardsmen in battle dress to protect the citizens and prevent the black students from entering the school. The Attorney General of the United States dispatched the FBI and Federal Marshals to Little Rock to counter the National Guard.
Governor Faubus sent a telegram to President Eisenhower. He claimed the Federal agents were planning to arrest him and he blamed any future violence on the Federal employees. Eisenhower did not buy it. He backed the Attorney General to the hilt and told the Governor to stand down. “The Federal Constitution will be upheld by me by every legal means available,” Ike said.
Eisenhower called Faubus and requested that they meet face-to-face in Newport, Rhode Island. Faubus complied with the president’s request and after the meeting, the President believed that Faubus would support allowing the nine black children to enter Central High. Faubus, however, did not comply. The Governor did not require that the National Guard back off and they continued to prevent the black students from entering the school.
On September 20 in Judge Davies’ Federal Court, the judge ordered the governor to cease all activities that was preventing the black students from entering the school. Governor Faubus complied with the court order, but when school opened the following Monday, it was surrounded by an angry mob of over 1000 protesters determined to prevent the black students from entering the school.
The black students left the school under police protection. The president ordered Maxwell Taylor to lead the 101st Airborne to use force in Little Rock if necessary. Ike offered no conditions. “the black students will be admitted to Central High using whatever force may be necessary.”
Ike issued a proclamation demanding that the protesters disperse. Th situation in Little Rock continued to deteriorate. Racial fighting broke out. On Tuesday morning, the president ordered Maxwell Taylor to dispatch troops which would be transported on C130 aircraft to Little Rock. Five hundred members of the Arkansas National Guard, under Federal Command, arrived at the riot scene with bayonets fixed.
That evening Eisenhower spoke to the nation on TV. The purpose of the troops in Little Rock is to enforce the order of the Federal Court. The president reached out for southern support, but he made it clear that the law would be enforced. He called again on the citizens of Arkansas to assist. “Thus, will be restored the image of America and all its parts as one nation, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all.”
The next morning the protesters returned but the 101st was there to take charge. An Army officer arrived at the door of the school. He saluted and said, “we are ready for the children.”
In May 1960, an American U-2 surveillance plane was shot down over Russia. The pilot was captured by the Soviets without the president knowing that he was still alive. Eisenhower initially denied that the U.S. was spying on the Soviets, but he soon had to acknowledge that we were guilty. Eisenhower took full responsibility for the spying and the loss of the U-2. Gary Powers, the pilot, was later exchanged for another Soviet spy and he was returned to the United States.
John F. Kennedy defeated Richard Nixon for the presidency in the 1960 election by a small margin. Kennedy carried 303 electoral votes to Nixon’s 219 votes but with only a 112,000-vote margin in the popular vote.
In a farewell address in January 1961, Eisenhower warned the nation about the dangers of the military industrial complex. “The dangers of disastrous rise of misplaced power exists.” The U.S. must avoid becoming a nation of fear and hate and instead be a nation of mutual trust and respect.
The Eisenhowers retired to their farm at Gettysburg. Ike was restored to permanent five-star rank. He concentrated on writing his memoirs. On March 27, 1969, Ike instructed his son to remove him from life-support devices.
Ike is still considered one of the most admired men in America.
Rating
Four stars out of five. This is an excellent biography of a President who was much admired for his military skills and later for his credibility as President of the United States. His major peace-time accomplishment was the construction of the Interstate Highway System although he deserves a lot of credit for the integration of Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas. He deserves credit for planning and leading the Allied victory in Europe during World War II. Eisenhower was a superior military officer and civilian executive. I highly recommend reading this excellent biography of him.
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